Psychological and Cognitive Functioning Among Patients Receiving Outpatient Rehabilitation for Post-COVID Sequelae: An Observational Study.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the characteristics of individuals receiving outpatient rehabilitation for post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). Further, to examine factors associated with variation in their psychological and cognitive functioning and health-related quality of life. DESIGN: Observational study. SETTING: Outpatient COVID-19 recovery clinic at a large, tertiary, urban health system in the US. PARTICIPANTS: COVID-19 survivors with persistent sequelae (N=324). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Multivariable logistic and linear regression models were used to examine factors associated with COVID survivors' experience of severe anxiety, severe depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cognitive impairment, and self-reported health-related quality of life. RESULTS: About 38% of survivors seeking care for their persistent COVID symptoms suffered from severe anxiety, 31.8% from severe depression, 43% experiencing moderate to severe PTSD symptomology, and 17.5% had cognitive impairment. Their health-related quality of life was substantially lower than that of the general population (-26%) and of persons with other chronic conditions. Poor and African American/Black individuals experienced worse psychological and cognitive sequelae after COVID19 infection, even after controlling for age, sex, initial severity of the acute infection, and time since diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence of consistent disparities in outcomes by the patients' race and socioeconomic status, even among those with access to post-acute COVID rehabilitation care, are concerning and have significant implications for PASC policy and program development.

Psychological and Cognitive Functioning Among Patients Receiving Outpatient Rehabilitation for post-COVID sequelae: An Observational Study

Objectives To describe the characteristics of individuals receiving outpatient rehabilitation for post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). Further, to examine factors associated with variation in their psychological and cognitive functioning and health-related quality of life. Design Observational study. Setting Outpatient COVID-19 recovery clinic at a large, tertiary, urban health system in the U.S. Participants COVID-19 survivors with persistent sequelae (n=324). Interventions Not applicable. Main Outcome Measures Multivariable logistic and linear regression models were used to examine factors associated with COVID survivors’ experience of severe anxiety, severe depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cognitive impairment, and self-reported health-related quality of life. Results About 38% of survivors seeking care for their persistent COVID symptoms suffered from severe anxiety, 31.8% from severe depression, 43% experiencing moderate to severe PTSD symptomology, and 17.5% had cognitive impairment. Their health-related quality of life was substantially lower than that of the general population (-26%) and of persons with other chronic conditions. Poor and African American/Black individuals experienced worse psychological and cognitive sequelae following COVID19 infection, even after controlling for age, gender, initial severity of the acute infection, and time since diagnosis. Conclusions Evidence of consistent disparities in outcomes by the patients’ race and socioeconomic status, even among those with access to post-acute COVID rehabilitation care, are concerning and have significant implications for PASC policy and program development.

Race, ethnicity, and utilization of outpatient rehabilitation for treatment of post COVID-19 condition.

INTRODUCTION: Outpatient rehabilitation is recommended in the treatment of post coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) condition. Although racial and ethnic disparities in the incidence and severity of COVID-19 have been well documented, little is known about the use of outpatient rehabilitation among patients with post COVID-19 condition. OBJECTIVE: To examine factors associated with outpatient rehabilitation use following COVID-19 and to ascertain whether differential incidence of sequelae explain variation in post COVID-19 rehabilitation utilization by race and ethnicity. DESIGN: Case-control study. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: U.S. adults with COVID-19 during 2020 in the TriNetX database. INTERVENTION: N/A. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Receipt of outpatient rehabilitation services within 6 months of COVID-19 diagnosis and incidence of post COVID-19 condition symptoms (weakness, fatigue, pain, cognitive impairment, mobility difficulties, and dyspnea). RESULTS: From 406,630 laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases, we identified 8724 individuals who received outpatient rehabilitation and matched 28,719 controls. Of rehabilitation users, 43.3% were 40 years old or younger, 54.8% were female, 58.2% were White, 17.9% were African American/Black, 2.1% were Asian, 13.0% were Hispanic, 39.2% had no comorbidities, and 40.3% had been hospitalized for COVID-19. Dyspnea (20.4%), fatigue (12.4%), and weakness (8.2%) were the most frequently identified symptoms. Although there were no racial differences in the incidence of the six post COVID-19 condition symptoms considered, African American/Black individuals were significantly less likely than their White counterparts to receive outpatient rehabilitation (odds ratio [OR] = 0.89; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.84-0.96; p = .003). Hispanic individuals had higher outpatient rehabilitation utilization (OR = 1.22; 95% CI: 1.11-1.33; p < .001) and a significantly higher incidence of post COVID-19 fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: In this large nationally representative study, African American/Black race was associated with lower utilization of outpatient rehabilitation services despite a similar incidence of post COVID-19 condition symptoms. Further research is needed to better understand access barriers to rehabilitation services for post COVID-19 condition recovery care and address racial inequalities in receipt of care.

The unique contribution of depression to cognitive impairment in Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is associated with significant cognitive impairment and increased risk for mental health comorbidities. This study aimed to identify specific associations between cognitive impairment, self-reported disruptions in memory, and psychiatric symptoms including depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and perceived sleep concerns. Methods: Data collected from all consecutive patients with Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) who presented to a dedicated Post-COVID Clinic were used to evaluate whether certain psychiatric symptoms were more strongly associated with cognitive impairment and self-reported memory disturbances. Results: Univariate and multivariable analyses revealed that depression symptom severity was significantly associated with the severity of cognitive impairment among patients with PASC. This association was driven primarily by lower performance on verbal fluency, attention, and delayed recall tasks among patients with higher depression symptoms severity. Perceived sleep concerns were an important predictor of self-reported memory disturbances. Conversely, neither PTSD symptom severity nor anxiety symptom severity were significant predictors of cognitive impairment or self-reported memory disturbances. Conclusions: These findings have important clinical implications for justifying the need for screening patients with PASC for both depression and cognitive impairment.

Inpatient Rehabilitation Outcomes After Severe COVID-19 Infections: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to describe the characteristics and functional outcomes of patients undergoing acute inpatient rehabilitation after hospitalization for COVID-19. DESIGN: Using a retrospective chart review, patients were identified who were admitted to inpatient rehabilitation after COVID-19. Patient information collected included sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, length of stay, discharge disposition, self-care, mobility, and cognitive functioning. These patients were compared with patients (controls) without COVID-19 with similar impairment codes treated at the same facility before the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: There were 43 patients who were admitted to the inpatient rehabilitation hospital after COVID-19 infection and 247 controls. Patients who had COVID-19 were significantly more likely to be African American and to have been admitted to a long-term acute care hospital. They also had a longer length of rehabilitation stay. The groups did not differ by age, sex, or insurance. Functionally, although presenting with significantly worse mobility, self-care, and motor scores, the patients previously infected with COVID-19 had similar functional outcomes at time of discharge to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Although patients with a history of COVID-19 had worse function at time of admission to acute rehabilitation, inpatient rehabilitation significantly improved their function to comparable levels as patients who did not have COVID-19. TO CLAIM CME CREDITS: Complete the self-assessment activity and evaluation online at http://www.physiatry.org/JournalCME. CME OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this article, the reader should be able to: (1) Identify how characteristics of patients with COVID-19 admitted to acute rehabilitation differ from those with similar admission codes but without COVID-19; (2) Describe changes in functional measures at admission and discharge of COVID-19 patients compared with patients without COVID-19; and (3) Recognize how inpatient rehabilitation may help reduce inequities in outcomes after severe COVID-19 infection. LEVEL: Advanced. ACCREDITATION: The Association of Academic Physiatrists is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education to provide continuing medical education for physicians.The Association of Academic Physiatrists designates this Journal-based CME activity for a maximum of 1.0 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should only claim credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

SARS-CoV-2 and Wisconsin Nursing Homes: Temporal Dynamics During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Evidence suggests that quality, location, and staffing levels may be associated with COVID-19 incidence in nursing homes. However, it is unknown if these relationships remain constant over time. We describe incidence rates of COVID-19 across Wisconsin nursing homes while examining factors associated with their trajectory during 5 months of the pandemic. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Wisconsin nursing homes. METHODS: Publicly available data from June 1, 2020, to October 31, 2020, were obtained. These included facility size, staffing, 5-star Medicare rating score, and components. Nursing home characteristics were compared using Pearson chi-square and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Multiple linear regressions were used to evaluate the effect of rurality on COVID-19. RESULTS: There were a total of 2459 COVID-19 cases across 246 Wisconsin nursing homes. Number of beds (P < .001), average count of residents per day (P < .001), and governmental ownership (P = .014) were associated with a higher number of COVID-19 cases. Temporal analysis showed that the highest incidence rates of COVID-19 were observed in October 2020 (30.33 cases per 10,000 nursing home occupied-bed days, respectively). Urban nursing homes experienced higher incidence rates until September 2020; then incidence rates among rural nursing homes surged. In the first half of the study period, nursing homes with lower-quality scores (1-3 stars) had higher COVID-19 incidence rates. However, since August 2020, incidence was highest among nursing homes with higher-quality scores (4 or 5 stars). Multivariate analysis indicated that over time rural location was associated with increased incidence of COVID-19 (ß = 0.05, P = .03). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Higher COVID-19 incidence rates were first observed in large, urban nursing homes with low-quality rating. By October 2020, the disease had spread to rural and smaller nursing homes and those with higher-quality ratings, suggesting that community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 may have propelled its spread.

Racial Disparities in Incidence and Outcomes Among Patients With COVID-19.

Importance: Initial public health data show that Black race may be a risk factor for worse outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Objective: To characterize the association of race with incidence and outcomes of COVID-19, while controlling for age, sex, socioeconomic status, and comorbidities. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included 2595 consecutive adults tested for COVID-19 from March 12 to March 31, 2020, at Froedtert Health and Medical College of Wisconsin (Milwaukee), the largest academic system in Wisconsin, with 879 inpatient beds (of which 128 are intensive care unit beds). Exposures: Race (Black vs White, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native American or Alaska Native, Asian, or unknown). Main Outcomes and Measures: Main outcomes included COVID-19 positivity, hospitalization, intensive care unit admission, mechanical ventilation, and death. Additional independent variables measured and tested included socioeconomic status, sex, and comorbidities. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay was used to test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Results: A total of 2595 patients were included. The mean (SD) age was 53.8 (17.5) years, 978 (37.7%) were men, and 785 (30.2%) were African American patients. Of the 369 patients (14.2%) who tested positive for COVID-19, 170 (46.1%) were men, 148 (40.1%) were aged 60 years or older, and 218 (59.1%) were African American individuals. Positive tests were associated with Black race (odds ratio [OR], 5.37; 95% CI, 3.94-7.29; P = .001), male sex (OR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.21-2.00; P = .001), and age 60 years or older (OR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.53-2.73; P = .001). Zip code of residence explained 79% of the overall variance in COVID-19 positivity in the cohort (ρ = 0.79; 95% CI, 0.58-0.91). Adjusting for zip code of residence, Black race (OR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.00-3.65; P = .04) and poverty (OR, 3.84; 95% CI, 1.20-12.30; P = .02) were associated with hospitalization. Poverty (OR, 3.58; 95% CI, 1.08-11.80; P = .04) but not Black race (OR, 1.52; 95% CI, 0.75-3.07; P = .24) was associated with intensive care unit admission. Overall, 20 (17.2%) deaths associated with COVID-19 were reported. Shortness of breath at presentation (OR, 10.67; 95% CI, 1.52-25.54; P = .02), higher body mass index (OR per unit of body mass index, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.05-1.35; P = .006), and age 60 years or older (OR, 22.79; 95% CI, 3.38-53.81; P = .001) were associated with an increased likelihood of death. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of adults tested for COVID-19 in a large midwestern academic health system, COVID-19 positivity was associated with Black race. Among patients with COVID-19, both race and poverty were associated with higher risk of hospitalization, but only poverty was associated with higher risk of intensive care unit admission. These findings can be helpful in targeting mitigation strategies for racial disparities in the incidence and outcomes of COVID-19.